The marker of the “something else” (the ground in the figure–ground relationship) is given the label [ss ComparisonRef]:
- [ex 001 "She is taller [p en/than ComparisonRef] me."]
- [ex 002 "She is taller [p en/than ComparisonRef] I am."]
- [ex 003 "She is taller [p en/than ComparisonRef] she is wide."]
- [ex 004 "She is better at math [p en/than ComparisonRef] at drawing."]
- [ex 005 "The shirt is more gray [p en/than ComparisonRef] black."]
- [ex 006 "She is as tall [p en/as ComparisonRef] I am."]
- [ex 007 "Your face is (as<sub>[ss Characteristic--Extent]</sub>) red [p en/as ComparisonRef] a rose. (more on [p en/as]—[p en/as] comparatives: [Comparatives and Superlatives](/en/comparatives_and_superlatives))"]
- [ex 008 "Your surname is the_same [p en/as ComparisonRef] mine."]
- [ex 009 "Harry had never met anyone quite [p en/like ComparisonRef] Luna."]
- [ex 010 "It was <u>[p en/as_if ComparisonRef]</u>/<u>[p en/like ComparisonRef]</u> he had insulted my mother."]
The comparison is often made with respect to some dimension or attribute, the [ss Characteristic], which may or may not be scalar.
The comparison may be figurative, employing simile, hyperbole, or spatial metaphor (<i>close to</i> in the sense of ‘similar to’).
The [ss ComparisonRef] may even be a desirable or hypothetical/irrealis event or state (<i>It was [p en/as] it should have been</i>).
Prototypical prepositions include [p en/than], [p en/as] (including the second item in the [p en/as]—[p en/as] construction), [p en/like], [p en/unlike].
Prominent construals are [p en/to] ([ss Goal] for similar-thing) and [p en/from] ([ss Source] for dissimilar-thing).
## [ss Locus] construal for relative locative position on scale
Prototypically-locative prepositions that are *relative* ([p en/above], [p en/below], [p en/between], [p en/under], etc.—in contrast to the *absolute* ones like [p en/at], [p en/in], and [p en/on])—invite a comparison between two things.
Where the relation between governor and object exists mainly to compare two items (or their values) on an abstract scale, and the preposition metaphorically expresses this relation as a relative location, [ss ComparisonRef--Locus] applies.
Examples include:
- [ss ComparisonRef--Locus]:
- *Scale of measurement:* [ex 036 "Your heart rate is [p en/above ComparisonRef--Locus] <u>100 bpm</u>/<u>normal</u>/<u>mine</u>."]
- *Reference point for cost:* [ex 037 "The price is [p en/within ComparisonRef--Locus] my budget."]
- *Scale of progress:* [ex 038 "My team is [p en/ahead_of ComparisonRef--Locus] your team in the tournament."]
- *Relative preference:* [ex 011 "I prefer this restaurant [p en/over ComparisonRef--Locus] that one.[^1]<br/> [paraphrase: I like this restaurant better [p en/than] that one.]"]
This excludes absolute prepositions, as in [exref 040 ComparisonRef]–[exref 042 ComparisonRef], as well as prepositional phrases conveying circumstantial information about a scene (e.g. place, time, manner) or cost ([exref 043 ComparisonRef]–[exref 046 ComparisonRef]).
- [ex 040 "Your heart rate is [p en/at Locus] 70 bpm. ([ss Locus])"]
- [ex 041 "That’s [p en/in Locus] my price range. ([ss Locus])"]
- [ex 042 "The book is priced [p en/at Cost--Locus] $10. ([ss Cost--Locus])"]
- [ex 043 "restaurants [p en/within Locus] 10 miles [physical location] ([ss Locus])"]
- [ex 044 "I will explain my argument [p en/below Locus]. [discourse location] ([ss Locus])"]
- [ex 045 "The guests will arrive [p en/after Time] 6:00. ([ss Time])"]
- [ex 046 "The book is priced [p en/below Cost--Locus] $10. ([ss Cost--Locus])"]
See also [ss Approximator].
## [ss Source] and [ss Goal] construals
Resemblance and equivalence may be expressed with [p en/to], while difference may be expressed with [p en/from]:
- [ss ComparisonRef--Goal]:
- [ex 012 "Shall I compare thee [p en/to ComparisonRef--Goal] a summer’s day?"]
- [ex 013 "Her height is <u>equal</u>/<u>close</u> [p en/to ComparisonRef--Goal] mine."]
- [ss ComparisonRef--Source]:
- [ex 014 "We need to distinguish what is achievable [p en/from ComparisonRef--Source] what is desirable."]
- [ex 015 "Her height is different [p en/from ComparisonRef--Source] mine.[^2]"]
## [ss Ancillary] construal
- [ex 016 "Don’t compare me [p en/with ComparisonRef--Ancillary] my sister! ([ss ComparisonRef--Ancillary])"]
## Category as standard
An indirect comparison can be made by relating something to a category to which it may or may not belong.
The category stands for its members or prototypes. For example, in:
- [ex 017 "He is short [p en/for ComparisonRef] a basketball player. ([ss ComparisonRef])"]
the category <i>basketball player</i> serves as the standard against which <i>he</i> is deemed short.
## Sufficiency and excess
Sufficiency and excess can be expressed with adverbs (*too*, *enough*, *insufficiently*, etc.) and adjectives (*insufficient*) that license a PP or infinitival expressing the consequence.[^3] For example:
- [ss ComparisonRef--Purpose]:
- [ex 018 "He is <u>too short</u>/<u>not tall enough</u> <u>[p en/for ComparisonRef--Purpose]</u>/<u>[p en/to ComparisonRef--Purpose] play</u> basketball."]
- [ex 019 "His height is insufficient [p en/for ComparisonRef--Purpose] basketball."]
Playing basketball is the desired outcome, but it is conditional on some scalar property relative to an implicit point on the scale—in [exref 018 ComparisonRef] and [exref 019 ComparisonRef], a minimum height associated with playing basketball. As a consequence, the desired outcome may or may not be blocked. Thus, the consequence phrase helps to establish a reference point of comparison.
As discussed under [ss Purpose], if the consequence phrase in such a construction meets the criteria for purposes, it is labeled [ss ComparisonRef--Purpose]. Otherwise, the non-purpose consequence is labeled [ss ComparisonRef--Goal].
## [ss Manner--ComparisonRef] construal
This applies to an analogy describing the *how* of an event (be it agentive or perceptual):
- [ss Manner--ComparisonRef]:
- [ex 020 "You eat [p en/like Manner--ComparisonRef] a pig (eats)."]
- [ex 021 "You smell [p en/like Manner--ComparisonRef] a pig."]
However, where an analogy is an external comment on an event rather than filling in a role of the event, it is simply [ss ComparisonRef].
Contrast:
- [ex 022 "You ate a whole pie [p en/like] my cousin did."]
- <i>Role reading:</i> The way in which you ate a pie was similar. ([ss Manner--ComparisonRef])
- <i>External comment reading:</i> You ate a whole pie, and so did my cousin. ([ss ComparisonRef])
## Analogy and non-analogy readings of [p en/like]
In descriptions, adverbial [p en/like], [p en/as_if], etc. can be ambiguous, especially in a scene of perception.
For example:
- [ex 023 "This looks [p en/like] a Van Gogh painting."]
- <i>Analogy reading:</i> This looks similar to a Van Gogh painting. ([ss Manner--ComparisonRef])
- <i>Conclusion reading:</i> This looks to be a Van Gogh painting (it probably is one). ([ss Theme--ComparisonRef])
- [ex 024 "It sounded [p en/like]/[p en/as_if]"]
- ... he had drunk a gallon of helium. ([ss Manner--ComparisonRef]: analogy reading more likely)
- ... they weren’t taking me seriously. ([ss Theme--ComparisonRef]: conclusion reading more likely)
Similarly for <i>seem [p en/like]</i>, <i>feel [p en/like]</i>, etc.
Another ambiguity can arise when [p en/like] occurs with <i>what</i> as its extracted object.
In the following sentences, the most likely interpretation is not one of analogy between two things, but rather an open-ended description.
(<i>Who does it look [p en/like]?</i>, by contrast, implicates an analogy to an individual.)
We therefore treat <i>[p en/like] what</i> as a PP idiom, and label it [ss Manner--ComparisonRef]:
- [ss Manner--ComparisonRef]:
- [ex 025 "I know [pspecial what en/what_like Manner--ComparisonRef]\_ Steve looks \_[pspecial like en/what_like Manner--ComparisonRef] . (I know how Steve looks.)"]
- [ex 026 "[pspecial What en/what_like Manner--ComparisonRef]\_ does her hair look \_[pspecial like en/what_like Manner--ComparisonRef]? (How does her hair look?)"]
- [ex 027 "[pspecial What en/what_like Manner--ComparisonRef]\_ is the party \_[pspecial like en/what_like Manner--ComparisonRef]? (How is the party?)"]
A <i>how</i>-paraphrase is generally possible, though <i>how</i> may suggest a positive or negative evaluation is available, whereas <i>what</i> is more neutral.
Constrast unaccusative perception verb + [p en/of] combinations:
- [ex 028 "<u>Your father smells</u>/<u>The soup tastes</u> [p en/of Manner--Stuff] elderberries. ([ss Manner--Stuff]) [also [exref 006 Manner]]"]
## Category exemplars and set members
When governed by an NP naming a category or set, [p en/like] is ambiguous between exemplifying a member, as in [exref 029 ComparisonRef] (Inclusive/nonrestrictive reading) as well as [exref 031 ComparisonRef], and merely indicating similarity, as in [exref 029 ComparisonRef] (Exclusive/restrictive reading) as well as [exref 030 ComparisonRef]:
- [ex 029 "Colbert frequently promotes comedians [p en/like] himself."]
- [<i>Exclusive/restrictive reading:</i> <i>similar to</i> himself (but not including himself)] ([ss ComparisonRef])
- [<i>Inclusive/nonrestrictive reading:</i> <i>such as</i>/<i>including</i> himself (he promotes himself, among others)] ([ss PartPortion--ComparisonRef])
- [ex 030 "I don’t know anyone else [p en/like ComparisonRef] her. [anyone else <i>similar to</i> her] ([ss ComparisonRef])"]
- [ex 031 "It must be great to have a wonderful doctor [p en/like Identity--ComparisonRef] <u>her</u>/<u>she is</u>. [It must be great to have her because she is a wonderful doctor] ([ss Identity--ComparisonRef])"]
## Instead-of alternatives
[ss ComparisonRef] also applies to a default or already established thing for which something else stands in or is chosen as an alternative.
- [ex 032 "I ordered soup <u>[p en/instead_of ComparisonRef]</u>/<u>[p en/rather_than ComparisonRef]</u> salad."]
- [ex 033 "[pspecial Instead_of en/instead_of ComparisonRef] ordering salad, I ordered soup."]
- [ex 034 "The new shirts were gray [p en/instead_of ComparisonRef] black."]
May be construed spatially:
- [ex 035 "I chose soup [p en/over ComparisonRef--Locus] salad. ([ss ComparisonRef--Locus])"]
This is similar to the static-preference use of [p en/over] illustrated in [exref 011 ComparisonRef]. See also [ss Ancillary] and [ss Theme].
[^1]: This is closely related to the notion of an alternative as in [exref 035 ComparisonRef].
[^2]: American English. Interestingly, <i>different [p en/to]</i> occurs in British English.
[^3]: See the Degree-Consequence construction ([Bonial et al., 2018](/bib/bonial_et_al_2018/)).